Culture
46: Rising From the Ashes
In Episode 46 of Bedrock, host Dylan Wilmeth explores the ancient volcanic landscape of Isua, Greenland, dating back 3.8 billion years. The episode delves into the formation of different types of volc...
46: Rising From the Ashes
Culture •
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Interactive Transcript
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Hello and welcome to Bedrock, a podcast on Earth's earliest history.
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I'm your host Dylan Wilmeth.
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Episode 46 Rising from the Ashes
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For the past three episodes, we've been exploring the Isula region of Southwest Greenland,
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a lonely remote tundra near the Arctic Circle.
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These rocks are the most well-preserved of Season 2, the crown jewel of this area.
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How old you ask?
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These rocks are between 3.8 to 3.7 billion years old.
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On the Great Earth calendar, consider this March 3rd through 11th, over a week.
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We started with the oldest rocks in the region, which are also the oldest surviving
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pieces of Earth's mantle, the hidden world below our feet.
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In this episode, we move forward in time and return back to Earth's ancient surface,
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the realm of oceans, volcanoes, and life.
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What did Greenland look like back then?
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Modern day Isula is a cold tundra, peppered with lakes, sitting next to a massive ice sheet.
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But Isula 3.8 billion years ago was a very different story.
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Traveling back in time, we would see a vast blue ocean, peppered with islands.
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This ancient seascape looks far more like the modern Earth than Season 1.
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But there are some unnerving differences.
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The noon day sun high in the sky is noticeably dimmer, only as bright as the early dawn today.
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The moon looms twice as large in the sky with angry red craters cooling into the man in
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the moon.
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And let's not forget that this is a sky that we cannot breathe.
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The air has virtually no oxygen.
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Earth is growing more normal, but it's still a very alien world.
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As we gaze over this calm prehistoric sea, we hear an explosion on the horizon.
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We see a pillar of gray ash and a dull red glow from lava.
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It seems these islands are volcanic, building upward and outward with each new eruption.
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Today we'll explore these volcanoes and I'll introduce a new type of lava rock to the show.
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And finally, we'll see if any place on Earth today resembles Greenland 3.8 billion years ago.
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Part 1. The Blast Furnace
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Close your eyes if it's safe and imagine a volcano, a classic volcano from a movie or a cartoon.
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Okay, good. Keep that in your mind's eye. You're probably imagining a dark, conical mountain,
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like an upside-down ice cream cone. It might be sitting on a tropical island,
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it might be sitting in a mountain range or glowering over the black swamps of Mordor.
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Your imaginary volcano probably has a hole at the top, with glowing red lava oozing from the edges.
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It might also be belching ash high into the sky. That sure sounds like a volcano to me.
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And it is. But this is just one type of volcano, one flavor, amongst a wide buffet.
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Some volcanoes truly look like tall cones with holes, think of Mount Fuji in Japan or Mount St. Helens
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in the USA. Other volcanoes are wider, much wider and less steep. They spread out over many miles
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of ground. They're still tall, but these volcanoes look more like a broad dome than a pointy cone.
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Think of Manolowa in Oayi or Olympus Mons on Mars. Yet another type of volcano is just a huge
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crater sunk into the ground. No mountain, just a hole from a huge eruption. Think of Yellowstone
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National Park or the Isle of Santorini in Greece. These are just a few examples.
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So what volcanoes were present in ancient Isua 3.8 billion years ago?
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The answer is many different types. We've seen some of these volcanoes in previous episodes,
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while others are brand new to the show. Today, I'll briefly review our old friends,
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then introduce some new faces. Sadly, if you visit Isua today, there are no giant cones or domes
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sticking out of the ancient landscape. No craters, you can peek over.
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The only traces of the ancient volcanoes are the cooled lava flows, and ash beds they've left
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behind. But compared with earlier locations, these stones are still a treasure trove. Miles
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of rock to investigate and explore. In fact, most of Isua is volcanic rock. You'll see green rocks,
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black rocks, gray rocks, and even pinkish rocks. Each color was formed by different lava's,
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which made different volcanoes. Before we roam across the Greenland Tundra,
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let's review how these different lava's form and what they tell us about the ancient landscape.
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In this first part, I'm going to review two rocks we've seen before, basalt and tonalite.
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And review their importance to the Greenland story. Think of them like links in a chain to
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reach today's new volcanic friend. If you feel like you're on solid ground with these old rocks
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and want to skip straight to the new kid, you can head to 13 minutes and 49 seconds. Ready?
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Lava is made by melting other types of rock. Any type of rock you can imagine can be melted down
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with enough heat. But there's a catch. Rocks usually don't melt all at once. I'll say that again,
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it's critical to the rest of this episode. Rocks don't melt all at once. They're made from
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many types of crystal and each crystal has a unique melting point. For example,
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let's imagine a piece of green mantle rock from last episode, our new friend Pyridotite.
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Pyridotite is mostly green, but there are a few black crystals scattered around.
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Now, let's throw that poor Pyridotite into a blast furnace and slowly crank up the temperature.
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I'm going to use Celsius here, but no matter which scale you use, it's going to get really hot.
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At 100 degrees C, nothing, just a hot rock. At 500 degrees C, still nothing, just an even hotter rock.
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But around 900 degrees C or so, we finally see a change. All the black crystals begin to melt and
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bleed away from their former home. The green crystals are perfectly fine, still solid. They can
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take the heat. Eventually, we have two separate piles, one of solid, all of green crystals,
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and the other of molten liquid lava. Now, let's school everything back down.
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The liquid lava turns into a solid black rock, which is not surprising. We melted black crystals
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to make the lava. It makes sense that it cools back down into black crystals, once again.
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Congratulations! We've made a brand new lava rock. Its name is Basalt.
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Basalt is a very old friend of the show. It was one of the very first rocks I introduced
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in episode two, but we haven't really talked about it since episode 35. If you're new,
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here are the Basalt basics. Basalt is dark black with scattered flecks of gray.
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If you're watching a movie that features dark volcanic rock, it's usually Basalt.
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If you're a villain looking for the perfect foreboding layer, Basalt is an essential building material.
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Fortunately, you can get it cheap. Basalt is the most common volcanic rock on Earth.
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You can find it almost anywhere, even the man in the moon. But when I say Basalt,
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I want you to imagine the dark, cold sea floor. Nearly all the Earth's sea floor is paved with
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Basalt, like giant slabs of asphalt. Let's bring these ideas back to ancient Greenland.
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Just like today, black basalt is the most common volcanic rock in Isua, 3.8 billion years ago.
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In fact, it's the most common surface rock in Isua period. If I were to list the Isua Rocks
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layer by layer, it would sound something like this.
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Pyrritidite, basalt basalt basalt, bandit iron formation, basalt basalt basalt,
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sandstone, basalt basalt basalt, etc. We've talked about basalt a lot on the show already,
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and I want to focus on new rocks, the new players on the scene.
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Here's the one sentence summary about all this basalt, and then we're moving forward.
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Basalt tells us that volcanoes were erupting on the ancient sea floor, melting and refining
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bright green mantle into dark black stone. If you want more info, check out Episode 31,
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which is dedicated to basalt. Now, making today's new rock requires a few extra steps.
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First, we need to throw basalt back into the blast furnace.
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That just like last time, let's crank up the temperature slowly.
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I've mentioned many times that basalt is mostly black, but don't forget,
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there are little flecks of grey crystal inside. As we crank up the heat,
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those grey crystals are the first to whip out and melt away into a new bottle of lava.
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When we cool the furnace down, we've made another old friend, Tonalite.
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Tonalite is the star of season two. Every location we've seen has had lots of Tonalite.
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If you held a piece in your hand, you would see a dull grey stone with flecks of white and even pink.
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Tonalites tell us there was likely dry land around, but the details are vague,
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and there are still many mysteries to solve. Tonalites cool deep underground,
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so they don't tell us much about the surface world. Were these small islands or larger land masses?
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Did they form from normal plate tiktonics or from strange processes we see on other planets?
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Furthermore, Tonalite was super common in the ancient world, but it's very rare on the modern
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earth. What gives? We discussed these conundrums back in episode 39, and we'll discuss them again
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at the season's end. Back in Greenland, Tonalites are extremely common around the
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issuania surrounding our little bubble of basalts. They tell us there were islands in the area,
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but for now, not much more info than that. We have oceans, we have islands.
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Is there any more detail we can get?
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For that answer, let's throw our old friend Tonalite back into the blast furnace and
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finally meet today's new rock.
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Part 2. Pretty in pink.
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If you've jumped ahead from last section, here's the quick rundown. We started by partially
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melting a piece of green peridotite, the king of the mantle underworld. If you black crystal
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separated and cooled into our old friend, basalt, the dark king of the sea floor.
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We then partially melted this black slab of basalt, a few gray crystal separated,
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and cooled into yet another familiar face, Tonalite, the dull king of the islands.
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Now to make today's new rock, we're throwing Tonalite back into the blast furnace to see what
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happens. Just like the previous experiments, we're going to raise the temperature slowly and see
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what minerals melt first. Tonalite is mostly dull gray, but there are a few flex of white and
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pink scattered around. These are the wimpiest crystals of the bunch, the first to melt,
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and bleed away into lava. When we cool the furnace back down, this lava transforms into a new
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pale pink stone. Again, this makes sense, white and pink crystals melted, and then they
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refrows back into white and pink. Finally, after all that lead up, it's my pleasure to introduce
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this new rock to the show. Meet Rialite. That's R-H-Y-O-L-I-T-E Rialite.
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Rialite can be white, pale gray, or pink in color. The crystals inside are too small to see
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with the human eye. So instead of having a glittering or speckled appearance,
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Rialites often just look like dull lumps of hardened play-doh, clay, or chalk.
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One well-known variety of Rialite is called pumice. Pumice is famous because it floats on water,
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thanks to its lightweight and a Swiss cheese texture of air bubbles.
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One of my favorite tricks to play on students is to pretend a piece of pumice is extremely
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heavy, then gently toss the rock over to them. It never gets old to see their faces change from
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temporary panic to confusion to wonder, at holding such a light rock.
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You can also find pumice as a plat fertilizer or an abrasive. For example, my dad loves lava-brand
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soap, which has ground pumice inside. That stuff will get just about anything off your
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hands, including your top skin if you're not careful. If anyone represents lava soap out there,
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that may be to talk. When you interact with Rialite, it seems cute, even quirky. The very
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grandmother of the rock world. It's pink. It floats. It helps clean your skin.
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Nothing like that dark gloomy basalt hanging around the villain's castle there.
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But let's not forget that pretty pink Rialite was also forged from molten lava and spewed out
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of a volcano, hundreds of degrees hot. And if you asked me which eruption I would rather be around,
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basalt or Rialite, I would pick a basalt volcano every single time. To learn why, let's revisit our
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blast furnace from earlier this episode. Just like dark basalt and pink Rialite are very
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different rocks. They come from very different lovis. The lovis color is not important here.
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It's their textures. Basalt behaves like warm honey, flowing thickly but relatively fast.
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If you've seen videos of Hawaii or Iceland eruptions, you can see these runny lava flows in action.
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You'll also see these dark lovis happily bubbling away, popping and spraying
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fountains of lava into the air. You might be scratching your heads right now.
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Dylan, you might say. You said this is the volcano you'd want to be around. Fast lava flows,
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and spraying lava fountains don't sound very appealing. And you're right. Given a choice,
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I wouldn't be around any active volcano. And basalt volcanoes can cause a lot of extensive
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property damage. In the news, such devastation has happened recently in Hawaii and Iceland.
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But think back to those news reports. Do you remember hearing about many, or any deaths associated
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with those eruptions in Hawaii or Iceland?
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Basalt eruptions are dramatic but rarely result in the loss of human life. Typical flow speeds
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are only one mile an hour, rarely breaking five miles an hour, pretty easy for most folks to escape.
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For example, Iceland went 50 years without any loss of life from an eruption until 2023.
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And many recent Hawaiian eruptions had no recorded deaths that I could find.
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In fact, these active volcanoes are often tourist traps. You'll see images of people walking
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fairly close to lava flows. Obviously, you should still use common sense.
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Before we continue to rye-light eruptions, I have a quick personal story about volcanoes.
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In 2010, I was a freshman in college and I had signed up for my first international geology
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field trip, a trip to Iceland. The lecture started in January and we were slated to finish in the summer.
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But in between, our plans suddenly changed. And Icelandic volcano erupted in April 2010,
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filling the northern skies with ash. Over 100,000 flights were cancelled that week. Half the
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world's flights had the time. The largest shutdown since World War II. My school's flight
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was fortunately months later after the blow-up. But as we watched the volcano calm down on the news,
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we knew we had to visit it. The volcano is called Aeafiatliocle. One more time that's Aeafiatliocle.
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My apologies for butchering any Icelandic. If you think that's difficult to pronounce,
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so did many reporters, who shortened it to E15. We ascended the volcano about three months
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after it erupted, long after the ash and lava cleared. But as we ascended, we could still feel the
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heat from the ground pump through our boots. If you left a backpack too long on the ground,
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the hard plastic buckles would melt and stretch out like a Salvador Dalí painting.
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Finally, we made it to the very top, looking down into the crater. Sadly, there was no boiling pool
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of lava, just a steaming pile of grey and red rocks. But there was a small crack close by,
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about the size of a hand. Looking through that crack, I saw an orange glow brighter than anything
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I've seen before or since. It looked like a melted traffic cone. It was lava, and the heat
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belched so strongly from the crack you could only stand 30 feet away. The acrid stench of sulfur,
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the brimstone, was enough to cover your mouth, for me yellowish green crystals thick as moss
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around the cracks opening. It was both beautiful and terrifying to be hold.
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Got a picture of that up on our website, bedrockpodcast.com.
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On our way down, our professors stopped us for a lunch break. They found a strong heat vent on the
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rocky slope. No lava, no brimstone, just heat. Our profs dug through their packs and brought out
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sliced bread and cheese. Using two flat stones as a griddle, we made grilled cheese sandwiches using
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volcanic heat. I know, right? That day is one of the best in my life. A top five moment if not
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higher. Big thanks to Dr. Barry Cameron and Tom Huier at UW-Mawaki for making that trip possible.
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And if you are an undergraduate or no an undergraduate out there,
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chances like this are still available to you if you know where to look.
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Anyways, let's bring my story back into our narrative about basalt,
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ryanite and volcanic eruptions. Most eruptions on Iceland barf out dark basalt.
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Basalt lava is runny, like honey, but relatively safe. It's more of a tourist trap than a death
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trap. Ryanite lava. That's a different story. It's more like peanut butter, stodgerier,
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stickier, much less flowy. On one hand, that doesn't sound too bad.
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Slowly flowing lava is easy to avoid. But it's not the speed of the lava you should be worried about.
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The danger is hiding within.
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The slow sticky nature of ryanite lava means that gas bubbles are trapped inside.
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It's hard to escape. Remember the merrily bubbling basalts of Hawaii popping and fizzing along?
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Well, gas can't really do that in ryanite lava. The gas just stays inside, building more
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and more and more pressure like a hellish piece of bubble gum.
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Instead of many small bursts, the gas suddenly blows up in a much larger, much more violent
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explosion. Think of those old videos of folks with diet, coke, and mentos with bottles exploding
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all over the place. That's a ryanite eruption. The sheer eruptive force of ryanite volcanoes
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automatically makes them deadlier. But wait, there's more. When all those gasy bubbles explode
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in ryanite lava, they instantly cool and shatter into billions of tiny, even microscopic shards.
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Each individual shard might be invisible, but together they form a dense cloud of volcanic ash.
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That's right. Volcanic ash is the remains of shattered, frozen lava bubbles. If you look at this
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ash under the microscope, you can see these frozen bubbles for yourself. They look like broken
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pieces of those bubbly chocolate bars. I've got some pictures up on bedrockpodcast.com if you want to see.
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Now, as whimsical as these tiny, frozen lava bubbles are, volcanic ash is the deadliest feature
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of ryanite volcanic eruptions. Lava doesn't travel fast, but ash certainly does.
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Ash clouds can scream down a volcano at 100 kilometers an hour, or 60 miles an hour, the speed of a
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car. And this fresh ash is still very hot, up to 1000 degrees C, 2000 Fahrenheit.
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And let's not forget that it's extremely bad to breathe ash in no matter what temperature it is.
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In short, volcanoes that barf out ryanite and its cousins are death traps. They're bad news.
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Think of Mount Vesuvius, bearing ancient Roman Pompeii in ash. Think of Mount St. Helens in 1980,
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the worst eruption in US history. Think of Mount Tambora in Indonesia, which caused the year without
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a summer in 1816. Now, before I continue, I can hear volcanologists typing in the comments,
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telling me that these volcanoes aren't technically ryanite. And they're right.
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There are many types of explosive lava with many other names. But for today,
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ryanite is a useful shorthand for lava that make deadly, explosive, ashy volcanoes. I promise,
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we'll split hairs in later episodes. But you know what is literally ryanite?
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Some ancient volcanic rocks in Greenland, 3.8 billion years old.
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This is the first time we've seen ryanite or any rock like it on the show.
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Now that we've met our new fiery friend on the modern earth, what stories can it tell us about
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the ancient world?
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Part 3
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A Tale of Two Volcanoes
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All right, it's high time to clear our heads and take a walk around the Isuatundra near the Arctic
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Circle. Last episode, we saw the oldest stones in the region, glittering green rocks called
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parititites. Parititites told us tales of the ancient mantle, the deep underworld. But it's time
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to move on. Let's pack up camp and hike towards our new ryanite friends.
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As we walk northward, the rocks probably get younger and younger. And we begin to see a familiar
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pattern from earlier this episode. Just like our imaginary blast furnace, the green paritites are
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followed by layers of black basalt. And finally, pale ryanites. That sequence of rocks we melted
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from green to black to pale is a progression we'll see over and over again on the show. If you melt
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the green mantle, you'll make black sea floor. If you melt black sea floor, you'll make pale islands.
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It's a process of constant refinement over time. Which brings us to the ryanites, the most
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refined rock in this greenland volcanic suite. After walking over a thousand yards of black basalt,
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the ryanite layer stands out like a sore thumb, a wide highway of pale gray stone. Look to the left,
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look to the right. The ryanite stretches to the horizon in both directions,
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from one end of the region to the other, over many miles. Clearly, something major happened here.
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Let's investigate the clues.
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The first feature you'd notice is that the pale ryanite is stacked in layers, like pages of a book.
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These layers are thicker in the west, about the width of a human palm. And if you followed
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these layers east, they would thin out. Thin are going to finger. What are these layers telling us?
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Let's review what we know about ryanite. It's extremely sticky and slow flowing, like cold
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peanut butter. It doesn't flow across the landscape for miles. It stays put, piles up, and blows
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sky high. And yet we're seeing a neat ryanite layer stretching to the horizon. What we're seeing
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in Greenland are not ancient lava flows. They're ancient ash beds. Now hardened into solid
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rock after billions of years. Remember, ash travels much faster and much farther than lava,
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especially when it has the benefit of wind blowing it around. For example, when Natsaint Helens blew
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up in 1980, the wind blew the ash over a thousand miles. The ash close to the volcano was thick,
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in developing cars and buildings. And farther away, the ash was only a faint dusting, like gray snow
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that never melted. This idea brings us to the second clue from the Greenland Ryanites. The beds of
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bigger layers tell us we're getting closer to ground zero, the eruption center. And indeed,
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in 2021, when Dr. Alan Nuttman and his team looked in the western most rocks, they found massive
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unlaired ryanites. Up to 30 feet thick, riddled with empty holes like Swiss cheese.
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These unlaired ryanites were thick, chunky lava flows, and the holes within were former gas
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bubbles that never got the chance to blow up, a former time bomb frozen in stone.
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One last note on these rocks and then will wrap up. In 2015, Dr. Nuttman and crew examined the
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Isua ash layers and found chemical evidence that they had been sitting around on land, exposed
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to the wind and rain before burial. That night not sound like much, but on this show,
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seeing an actual piece of ancient dry land is pretty rare and very noteworthy.
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Until now, every surface rock we've talked about formed beneath the ocean waves,
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from underwater eruptions to chemical vents on the seafloor.
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On this show, far more rocks will be tied to the oceans than dry land.
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Even today, 70% of the world is covered with the sea, and it was even more extensive in the earth's
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early days. But every once in a while, you find an ancient piece of the surface, something humans could
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have walked on, like astronauts on an alien world. To my knowledge, this ash bed might be the oldest
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piece of, quote unquote, dry land on earth, but I could be way off base. In other case, it's a cool
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fact to end this episode on. Speaking of dry land, let's summarize what we've learned by traveling
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back in time and walking along the shores of one of these ancient volcanic islands.
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Summary
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The time is 3.8 billion years ago, March 3rd on the Earth calendar.
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We're standing on an island beach, looking out over the wide sea. As usual, the air is
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unbreatable, and we need space suits just to survive. The newnday sky is dim, dimmer than usual,
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with roiling, overcast clouds. A gentle shower of flakes falls from the sky to the beach,
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and on our space helmets, covering our small island with what looks like grey snow.
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It's a beautiful sight, almost out of a Christmas card. But this is not snow. It's volcanic ash
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perhaps still warm to the touch. In the distance, we see the eruption from the intro belching
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even more ash into the air. We're far enough away to be safe, but it's still an unnerving sight.
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This ash will one day turn into pale rye light on a green land tundra covered by real snow.
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This rye light, like others ancient and modern, warns us which volcanoes are death traps,
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time bombs filled with gas just waiting to erupt. The rye light is a herald of death and destruction,
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but also of growth and change. Each eruption builds new islands in this ancient sea,
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islands which will merge and grow, becoming the cores of continents, massive expanses of dry land.
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The world we know and love is slowly emerging from the waves, rising from the ashes.
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Next episode, we will jump forward in time, March 7th on the calendar, and return to the sea.
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We've learned about new volcanic rocks today, now it's time to meet some new sedimentary rocks,
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including my favorite type of rock on earth.
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Thank you for listening to Bedrock. If you like what you've heard today,
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please take a second to donate using the link in the description. Every dollar helps make this
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show possible and keep your eyes open for a patreon coming soon. If that doesn't work, just
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tell a friend, rate the show or leave a comment. It always makes my day and that one person could be you.
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You can drop me a line at bedrock.mailbox at gmail.com. See you next time and rock on.